States of Consciousness

Sleep: It is a state of consciousness and that we are less aware of our surroundings

• conscious
• subconscious
• unconscious
  

Why do we daydreams?

• Help prepare for future events
• Nourish our social development
• Substitute for impulsive behavior

Fantansy Prone Personalities: Someone who imagines and recalls experiences with like vivdness and who spend considerate tme fantasizing

Biological Rhythms

• Annual cycles: seasonal variations
• 28 day cycles: menustrual cycle
• 24 hour cycle: our circadian rhythm
• 90 minute cycle: sleep cycles

Circadian Rhythm

• Our 24 hour biological clock
• Our body temperature and awareness changes throughout the day

Sleep of Consciousness

• 90 - 100 minutes to pass through 5 stages
• The brain's waves change according to the sleep stage you are in
• The firsts four stages; it is called NREM sleep
• The fifth stage is called REM sleep

Stage 1

• Kind of awake and kind of asleep
• Only lasts a few minutes, and you usually only experience it once a night
• Your brain produces Theta waves

Stage 2

• Follows stage 1 sleep and is the "baseline" of sleep
• This stage is part of the 90 minute cycle and occupies appromixately, 45 - 60% of sleep
• More Theta waves that get progressively slower

Stage 3-4

• Slow wave sleeo
• You produce Delta waves
• If awoken, you will be very groggy
• Vital for restoring body's growth hormone and good overrall health
• May last 15 - 30 minutes
• It is called "slow wave" sleep because brain activity slows down dramactically from the "theta" rhythm of stage 2 to a much slower rhythm called "delta" and the height of amplitude of the waves increases dramatically
• Contrary to popular belief, it is delta sleep that is the "deepest" stage of sleep (not REM) and the most restorative
• It is delta sleep that a sleep deprived person's brain craves the first and foremost
• In chldren, delta sleep can occupy up to 40% of all sleep time and this is what makes children unawakenable

REM Sleep

• Rapid eye movement
• Brain is very active
• Dreams usually occur in REM
• Body is essentially paralyzed
• Composes 20 - 25% of a normal nights sleep
• Breathing, heart rate and brain wave activity quicken
• Vivid dreams can occur
• From REM, you gback to stage 2

DREAMS

Dreams: a ssequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind

Manifest Content: the remembered storyline of a dream

Latent Content: The underlying meaning of a dream

Why do we dream?

Three Theories

Freud's Wish-Fulfillment Theory

• Dreams are the key to understanding our inner conflicts
• Ideas and thoughts that are hidden in our unconscious
• Manifest and latent content

Information Processing Theory

• Dreams act to sort out and understand the memories that you experience that day
• REM sleep does not increase after stressful events

Activation - Synthesis Theory

• During the night, our brain stem releases random neural activity, dreams may be a way to make sense of that activity

Learning

Learning: It is a long lasting change in behavior due to experience

Ivan Pavlov: He was best known for being the man behind classical conditioning

 Classical Conditioning: it is an automatic learning; it involves being exposed to an unconditioned stimulus which is respnded with an uncondiotioned response

-Soon enought the (UCS) and the (UCR) become (CS) and (CR)

Acquisiton: does not exist for long

Timing Matters:

- Delayed Conditioning: present (CS), why (CS) is still there, present (UCS)

-Trace Conditioning: present (CS), short break, then present (UCS)

-Simultaneous Conditioning: (CS) and (UCS) presented at the same time

-Backward Condtioning: (UCS) is presented, then (CS) is presented

Spontaneous: After extinction, the (CR) still randomly appears after the (CS) is presented

Generalization: Something is so similar to the (CS) that you get a (CR)

Discrimination: Something is so different to the (CS) so you don't get a (CR)

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OPERANT CONDITIONING

Edward Thorndike: He made the theory Law of Effect; It is said that behavior changes when consequences are given

B.F. Skinner: well known for the theory, Operant Conditioning



Reinforces

- A reinforcer is anyhting that increases a behavior

Positive Reinforment: The addition of something pleasant

Negative Reinforcement: The removal of something unpleasant

Punishment

- To punish is to decrease an undesirable behavior

Positive Punishment: addition of something unpleasant

Negative Punishment: removal of something pleasant

Shaping: is reinforcing small steps on the way to the desired behavior

Primary v. Secondary Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcer: Things that are in themselves rewarding

Secondary Reinforcer: Things we have learned to value

Token Economy: Every time a desired behavior is performed, a token is given

Reinforcement Schedules

• Continuous
• Fixed Ratio
• Fixed Interval
• Variable Ratio
• Variable Interval

Memory

Memory: is the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

Memory Process:

• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval

Encoding: is the processing of information into the memory system.

Storage: is the retention of encoded material over time.

Retrieval: is the process of getting the information out of memory storage.

Recall Vs. Recognition:

• With recall you must retrieve the information from your memory, while with recognition you must identify the target from other possible targets.

Flashbulb Memory: is a clear moment of an emotionally significant moment or event.

Types of Memory:

Sensory: immediate, initial recording of sensory information stored just for an instant, must get unprocessed.

Short-term: memory that holds only a few items, the information will be stored into long-term or forgotten.

Long-term: relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

Encoding

Automatic Processing:

-unconscious encoding of incidental information

-you encode space, time, and word meaning

-things become automatic with practice

Effortful Processing:

-encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

-rehearsal is the most common effortful processing technique

-through enough rehearsal, what was effortful becomes automatic

The next-in-line effect: we seldom remember what the person has just said or done if we are next.

Spacing Effect:

-we encode better when we study or practice over time.

Serial Positioning Effect: Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

Types of Encoding:

Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning, like the meaning of words.

Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words.

Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images.

Mnemonic Devices: use imagery"

Chunking:

-organizing items into familiar, manageable units

-often it will occur automatically

Types of Retrieval Failure:

Proactive Interference: the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive Interference: the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Misinformation Effect: incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

Perception

Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting informatio, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Gestalt Philosophy: The whole is greater than some of its parts

Figure-Ground Relationship: The organiztion of the visual fields into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)

Grouping: The perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into groups that we understand

Depth Perception: The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are ywo dimensional
-Allows us to judge distance

Binocular Cues: Retinal Disparity: a binocular cue for seeing depth
-The closer an object comes to you the greater the disparity is between the two images

Sensation

Sensation: your window to the world

Perception: interpreting what comes in your window

Sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive stimulus from the environment

Bottom-up v. Top-Down Processing

Bottom Up: begins with the sensory receptors and nervous system receive stimulus from the environment

Top-Down: information processing guided by higher level mental processes

Absolute Threshold: the minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

Difference Threshold: the minimum difference that a person can detect between two stimuli

- Also known as Just Noticeable Difference

Weber's Law: the idea that, to perceive a difference between two stimuli, they must differ by a constant percentage not a constant amount

Signal Detection Theory: predict how we detect a stimulus amid other stimuli

Sensory Adaptation: decreased responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation

Selective Attention: the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Cocktail-party phenomenon: The cocktail party effect describes the ability to focus one's listening attention on a single talker among a mixture of conversations and background noises, ignoring other conversations
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Vision

Vision: our most dominating sense

Gathering Light

• Short Wavelength = High frequency (bluish colors, high-pitched sounds)
• Long Wavelength = Low frequency (reddish colors, low-pitched sounds)

 Transduction: Transforming signals into neural impulses
-Information goes from the senses to the thalamus then to the various areas in the brain

Conversion of one form of energy to another
Stimulus energies to neural impulse

• Light energy rto vision
• Chemical energy to smell and taste
• Sound waves to sound



Color Vision:

Two Major Theories

Young-Helenholtz Trichromatic (three color) Theory

Three types of cones: - Red -Blue - Green

-These three types of cones can make million of combinations of colors

Opponent-Process Theory: the sensory receptors comes in pairs

• Red/Green
• Yellow/Blue
• Black/White

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Hearing

Hearing: The height of the wave gives us the amplitude of the sound

-The frequency of the wave gives us the pitch of the sound



Transduction of the ear

Sound waves hit the eardrum then anvil then hammer then stirrup then anvil window

-Everything is just vibrating

-Then the cochlea vibrates

-The cochlea is lined with mucus called basilar membrane

-In basilar membrane there are hair cells

-When the hair cells vibrate they turn vibrations into neural impulses which are called organ of corti

-Sent then to thalamus to auditory nerve

Pitch Theories:

Place Theory: different hairs vibrate in the cochlea when thre are different pitches

-So some hairs vibrate when they hear high pitches and other vibraet when they hear low pitches

Frequency Theory: all the hairs vibrate but at different speeds

Deafness

Conduction Deafness: Something goes wrong with the sound and the vibration on the way to the cochlea

-You can replace the bones or get a hearing aid to help

Nerve Deafness: The hair cells in the cochlea get damaged

-Loud noises can cause this deafness

-NO WAY to replace the hairs

-Cochlea implant is possible

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Taste

Taste: We have bumps on our tongue called papillae

-Taste buds are located on the papillae

-Sweet, salty, sour, and bitter

 Umami: flavorable meaty favory taste

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Touch

Touch: Receptors located in our skin

-Gate Control Theory of Pain

Gate Contril Theory of Pain: Where the spinal cord controls a neurological gate that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on the brain

Vestibular Sense: Tells us where our body is oriented in space

-Our sense of balance

Kinesthetic Sense: Tells us where our body parts are

-Receptors located in our muscles and joints

Brain Structures

Scientists divide the brain up into 3 parts

1. Hindbrain

-Medulla Oblongata : Heart rate, breathing, blood pressure
-Pons : Connects hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain
  ~ Together, involved in facial expressions
-Cerebellum : located in the back of our head and also known as little brain
  ~Coordinates muscle movements, like tracking a target

2. Midbrain

-Reticular Formation : arousal and ability to focus attention
-Cerebellum : located in the back of our head and known as little brain
 ~ Coordinates muscle movements

3. Forebrain

-Thalamus : receives sensory information and sends them to appropriate areas of forebrain
 ~It's like a switchboard, everything but smell

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Limbic System - emotional control center of the brain
-It is made up of:

• Hypothalamus - pea sized in prain, but plays a large role in body temperature, hunger, thirst and sexual arousal (libido)
• Hippocampus - involved in memory processing
• Amgdala - vital for our nasic emotions  

Cerebral Cortex - top layer of the brain

Hemispheres - divided into right and left hemisphere

Contralateral controlled - left controls the right side of the body and vise versa

Corpus Callosum - attaches the two hemispheres of cerebral cortex

Developmental Psychology

Developmental Psychology - The study of you from womb to tomb
- Study how we change physically, socially, cognitively, and mentally over our lifetimes

Nature v. Nuture

Nature - The way you were born

Nurture - The way you were raised

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Prenatal Development - Conception begins with the drop of an egg and the release of about 200 million sperm
-The sperm seeks out the egg and attempts to penetrate the eggs surface

...Once the sperm penetrates the egg, we have a fertilized egg called...the zygote

Zygotes - Less than half of all zygotes survive first two weeks
-About 10 days after conception, the zygote will attach itself to the uterine wall
-The outer part of the zygote becomes the placenta (which filters nutrients)

...After two weeks, the zygote ddevelops into...an embryo

Embryo - Lasts about six weeks
-Heart begins o beat and the organs begin to develop

...By nine weeks, we have...a fetus

Fetus - About the 6th month, the stomach and other organs have formed enough to survive outside the mother
-At this time the baby can hear (and recognize) sounds and respond to light

Teratogens - Chemical agents that can harm the prenatal environment

• Alcohol (FAS)
• STDS
• HIV
• Herpes

Healthy Newborns - Turn head towards voices
-See 8 - 12 inches from their faces
-Gaze longer at human like objects right from birth

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Reflexes - Inborn automatic responses
-Rooting
-Sucking
-Graping

Maturation - Physical growth, regardless of the environment

Puberty - The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Primary Sexual Characteristics - Body structures that make reproduction possible
- Testes - Ovaries etc.

Secondary Sexual Characteristics - Non-reproductive sexual characteristics
-Widening of the hips
-Deeper voices
-Breast Development
-Body Hair

Landmarks for Puberty

• Menarche for girls (Aunt Flow, Red Niagara Falls)
• Spermarche for boys (Popping a bottle of champagne)

Physical Milestones

• Menopause

Death - Elizabeth Kubler-Ross's Stages of Death/Grief

1. Denial
2. Anger
3. Bargaining
4. Depression
5. Acceptance

Biological Behavior

The Nervpous System - Starts with an individual nerve cell called a neuron

                               

Neuroanatomy

Cell Body - the cell's life support center

Dendrites - receives messages from other cells

Axon - passess messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, and glands

Myelin Sheath - covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

Synapse - a structure that permits a neuron to pass a chemical/eletrical signal to another cell

Neurotransmitters - chemical held in terminal buttons that travel throughout synaptic gap

                                     Types of Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (ACh) - Deals with motor movement and memory
-Lack of ACh has been linked to Alzheimer's disease



Dopamine - Deals with motor movement and alertness

-Lack of dopamine has been linked to Parkinson's disease

-Too much has been linked to Schizophrenia

Serotonin - Involved in mood control

-Lack of serotonin has been linked to clinial depression

Endorphins - Involved in pain control

-Many of our most addictive drugs deal with endorphins

                                       

                                                 It could be...

• Agonists which makes neuron to fire
• Antagonists which stops neural firing

Types of Neurons

Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons) - Take information from the senses to the brain

Inter Neurons - Take messages from Sensory Neurons to other parts of the brain  or to Motor Neurons

Motor Neurons - Take information from brain to the rest of the body

Nervous System

Central Nervous System : The Brain and Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous System - All nerves are not encased in bone

-Everything but the brain and spinal cord

-It is dividd into two catergories, Somatic (SNS) and Autonomic (ANS)

Somatic Nervous System - Controls voluntary muscle movement

-uses motor neurons

Autonomic Nervous System -Controls the automatic functoins of the body

-Divided into two catergories, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic

Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) - Fight or flight response

-Automatically accelerates heart rate, breathing, filates pupils, slows down digestion

Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) - Automatically slows the body down, pupils constrict and digestion speeds up

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Reflexes - Normally, sensory (afferent) neurons take info up through the spine to the brain

-Some reactions occur when sensory neurons reach just the spinal cord

Lesions - Cutting into the brain and looking for change ways to steady the brain

Motivation and Emotion

Motivation: a need or desire that energized and directs behavior

Instinct Theory: we are motivated by our inborn automated behaviors
-But instincts only explain why we do a small fraction of our behaviors

Drive-Reduction Theory: The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state ( a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
-The need is usually to maintain homeostasis
-We are not only pushed by our needs but...pulled by our incentives a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham MAslow said we are motivated by needs and all needs are not created equal

Hunger: Hunger is both physiologicsl and psychological

                    Biological Basis od Hunger
Hunger does not come from the stomach, it comes from the brain

Which part of the brain?  Hypothalamus

Hypothalamus

Lateral Hypothalamus:

When stimulated it makes you hungry

-When lesioned, no more hunger

Ventromedial Hypothalamus:

When stimulated you feel full

-When lesioned, never feel full again

Attraction

Proximity - Geographic nearness

Mere Exposure Effect: Repeated exposure to something breeds liking

Reciprocal Liking: You are more liking to like someone who likes you

Similarity: Birds of the same feather flock together

Phsyical Attractiveness

Love

Passionate Love: an aroused state of intense positive absorption of another

Compassionate Love: the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

What makes compassionate love work?

- Equity

-Self-disclosure

Altruism: Unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Bystander effect: Willing to help if there are other bystanders around

Social Exchange Theory: the idea that our social behavior is an exchange process, which we maximize benfits and minimize costs

Peacemaking: give people superordinate goals that can only be achieved through cooperation

-Win win situations through mediation

-GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction)

Passionate love is said to be more of an intense love that is higher yet compassionate love goes further in the long run



Social Relations

Prejudice: an unjustifiable attitude towards a goup of people
-Usually involves stereotyped beliefs ( a generalized belief about a group of people)

Social Inequalities
A principle reason behind prejudice

Ingroup: "Us", people with whom one shares a common identity

Outgroup: "Them", those perceived as different than one's ingroup

Ingroup bias: the tendency to favor one's own group

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Scapegoat Theory: the theory that prejudice provides an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

Aggresion: any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

                        The Psychology of Aggression

Frustration-Aggressive Principle: the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal
-creates anger which generates aggression

Conflict: a pereceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

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Why is there prejudice?

1. Catergorization

2. Vivid Cases

3. Just World Phenomenon - the belief that those who suffer deserve their fate

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Reciprocity norm: the expectation that people help those who have helped them

Social Responsibility: the expectation that people will help those who depend on them

Social Influence

Conformity: Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group's standard

      Conditions That Strengthen Conformity       
1.) One is made to feel incompetent

2.) The group is at least three people

3.) The group is unanimous

4.) One admires the group's status

5.) One had made no prior commitment

6.) The person is observed

                   Reasons for Conformity
Normative Social Influence: Influemce resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid dissappointment

Infomational Social Influemce: Influence resulting from one's willingness to aceept other's opinions about reality

Social Facilitation: Improved performance of tasks in the presence of others
-Occurs with simple or well learned tasks

Social Loafing: the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling efforts toward a common goal than if they were individually accountable

Deindividuation: the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occuring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Group Polarization: The concept that a group's attitude is one of extremes and rarely moderate

Groupthink: The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides common sense

Self-fulling Prophecies: occurs when one person's belief about others leads one to act in ways that induce the others to appear to confirm the belief

Social Psychology

Social Psychology is the study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Social Thinking : how we think about one another

Attribution Theory: The idea that we give a casual explanation for someone's behavior

-We credit that behavior either to the situation or to the person's disposition

Fundamental Attribution Theory: The tendency to underestimate the impact of a situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Attitudes: A belief or feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to something

Foot in the door phenomenon: The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

Door in face phenomenon: The tendency for people who say no to a huge request, to comply with a smaller one

Cognitive Dissonance Theory: We do not like when we have either conflicting attitudes or when our attitudes do not match our actions

Experimental Research

Experimental Research: Explores cause and effect relationships

ExperimentationIndependent Variable: Experimental factor that is being manipulated

Dependent Variable: Variable that may change in resoinse to manipulation

Experimental and Control Groups

Experimental Group: The condition of an experiment that explores participants to the treatment

Control Group: The condition of the experiment that serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Experimental Method

Blind Study: Subjects are unaware if assigned to experimental or control group

Double-blind Study: Neither subjects nor experimenters know which group is control or experimental

                   DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS V. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Descriptive Statistics: describe the results of research

Inferential Statistics: are used to make an inference or draw a conclusion beyond the raw data

Measures of Central TendencyCentral tendency - where does the center of the data tend to be?

Mode: The most frequently occuring score in a distribution

Mean: Average if scores in distribution

Median: Middle score in a rank-ordered distribution

Range: Difference between the highest and lowest scores in distribution

Measures of Variation

Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean

Correlational Research

Correlational Research: express a relationship between two variables
-Does not show causation

-Measured using a correlation coeffecient-a number that measures the strength of a relationship

-The relationship gets weaker the closer it gets to zero

                             Types of Correlation

Positive Correlation: The variables go in the same direction

Negative Correlation: The variables go in opposite directions

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research: describe the subject that is being observed
 -Any research that observes and records

Types of Descriptive Research

~Case Studies

~Survey

~Naturalistic Observation

Case Studies: A detailed picture of one or a few sunjects

Survey: Measures correlation and can be done in an interview, mail, phone, internet, etc.
-Most common type of study in psychology

Random Sampling: Identify the population you want to study
-Sample must be represenative of the population you want to study

*Why do we sample?*
-One reason is the false consensus effect=the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

-Reasons Why Survey Method Is Sometimes Bad--Low response rate

-People lie or just misintrepret themselves

-Wording effects

Naturalistic Observation: Watch subjects in their natural environments and avoid in manipulating it

Hawthorne Effect: when the subject becomes aware that they are apart of an experiment being conducted, changes their activities in their environment

Research Methods

In psychology, many methods of research is done to subject in mind and also add a scientific information as well to it.

Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that you knew it all along

Over Confidence: We tend to think we know more than we do

The Barnum Effect: It is the tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterizatins of themselves and take them to be accurate

                       APPLIED V. BASIC RESEARCH
Applied: clear, practical practices

Basic: explores questions that you may be curious about, but not intended to be immediately used

Hypothesis: Expresses a relationship between two variables

Independent Variable: whatever is being manipulated in the experiment

Dependent Variable: whatever is being measured in the experiment

Operational Definitions: Explain what you mean in your hypothesis
-How willthe variables be measured in "real life" terms

Schizophrenia Disorders

About 1 in every 100 person are diagnosed with schizophrenia

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

1. Disorganized Thinking
2. Disturbed Perceptions
3. Inappropriate Emotions and Actions

Disorganized Thinking: The thinking of a person with schizophrenia is fragmented and bizarre and distorted with false beliefs
-Disorganized thinking comes from a breakdown in selective attention

Delusions (false beliefs)
-Delusions of Persecution: people are out to get you
-Delusions of Grandeur: greater and more powerful than you really are

Disturbed Perceptions: hallucinations sensory experiences without sensory stimulation

Inappropriate Emotions and Actions: Laugh at inappropriate times, flat effect, senseless compulsive acts, and catatonia meaning motionless

              Positive vs. Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Positive: hallucinations, disorganized, and deluded in their talk

Negative: toneless voice-monotone, expressionless face, mute, and rigid body


                        Types of Schizophrenia
Disorganized Schizophrenia: Disorganized speech or behavior, or flat or inappropriate emotion
-Imagine the worst

Paranoid Schizophrenia: Preoccupation with delusions and hallucinations

Catatonic Schizophrenia: Flat Effect, waxy flexibility, and have parrot like manner in which they mimic another's speech and movements
Undifferentiated Schizophrenia: Many and varied symptoms

Personality Disorders

Personality disorders is a well established maladaptive ways of behaving that negatively affect people's ability to function
-Dominates their personality

Antisocial Personality Disorder: lack of empathy, little regard for other's feelings and view the world as hostile and look out for themselves

Dependent Personality Disorder: Rely too much on the attention and help of others

Histrionic Personality Disorder:  Needs to be the center of attention and it is whether acting silly or dressing provocatively

Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Having an unwarranted sense of self-importance and thinking that you are the center of the universe

Mood Disorders

Mood Disorders is an experience of extreme or inappropriate emotion

Major Depression: unhappy for at least two weeks with no apparent cause

Depression is the common cold of psychological disorders

Seasonal Affective Disorder: experience depression during the winter months 

-Based not on temperature, but on amount of sunlight

-Treated with light therapy

Bipolar Disorder: involves periods of depression and manic episodes

-Manic episodes involve feelings of high energy

Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative disorders involve a disruption in the conscious process

THREE TYPES

Psychogenic Amnesia: a person cannot remember things with no physiological basis for the disruption in memory
-Retrograde Amnesia
-Not organic amnesia

Dissociative Fugue: people with psychogenic amnesia find themselves in an unfamiliar environment

Dissociative Identity Disorder: person who has several rather than one integrated personality
-People with DID commonly have a history of childhood abuse or trauma

Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety Disorders:  is a group of conditions where the primary symptoms are anxiety of defenses against anxiety

-the patient fears something awful will happen to them

-they are in a state of intense apprehension, uneasiness, uncertainty, or fear

Phobias: A person who experiences sudden episodes of intense dread

-Must be irrational fear

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): An anxiety disorder in which a person is continuously tense, apprehensive and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal

Panic Disorder: An anxiety disorder marked by a minute-long episode of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, and other frightening sensations

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): persistent unwanted thoughts cause someone to feel the need to engage in a particular action

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Flashbacks or nightmares following a person's involvement in or observation of an extremely stressful event

-memories of the event cause anxiety

Somatoform Disorders: occurs when a person manifests a psychological problem through a physiological symptom

 

TWO TYPES

Hydrochodriasis: has frequent physical complaints for which medical doctors are unable to locate the cause

-like a headache would seem like a indicative symptom to a severe illness
Conversion Disorders: report the existence of severe physical problems with no biological reason